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Few concepts in the social sciences are invoked with the same ease or employed so readily to explain so
many social and institutional outcomes as power. The concept of power has been used to explain, for
example, how organizational resources are allocated (Pfeffer, 1992), how decisions are made (Neustadt,
1990), the control of attention (Fiske, 1993), behavioral disinhibition (Galinsky, Gruenfeld & Magee,
2003; Keltner, Gruenfeld & Anderson, 2003), and the resolution of conflict (Boulding, 1966, 1989), to
name just a few important processes and outcomes. The concept of power is routinely used, moreover,
not only to explain why such outcomes do happen, but also why they don’t. Russell’s (1938) observation
that power is a “fundamental concept” in the social sciences remains as true today as it was when he first
uttered it.
As March (1994) noted, most conceptions of power reflect “the intuitive notion of struggle, with outcomes
determined by the relative strength of contending forces” (140). Wrong’s (1979) definition is representative
of this tradition, characterizing power as the “capacity of some persons to produce intended
and foreseen effects on others” (2). Along similar lines, Blau (1964) proposed that actors possess power
when they can “induce others to accede to wishes by rewarding them for doing so” (115). As these definitions
make clear, social scientists have long presumed an intimate relationship between power and influence
(French & Raven, 1959; McClelland, 1975): the effective use of social influence helps individuals
obtain power. Power, in turn, facilitates social influence because powerful social actors possess more
resources that can be brought to bear on solving their problems (Pfeffer, 1992).
Drawing on these distinctions, effective social influence can be defined as the process of successfully
inducing change in other people’s attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, feelings, values, and behaviors by means
of one’s own behavioral tactics. Thus defined, the use of effective influence tactics has been the subject
of considerable prior theory and research (see, e.g., Cialdini, 1988; Kramer & Neale, 1998; Levine, 2003;
Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992, 2001; Zimbardo, Ebbesen & Maslach, 1977 for more comprehensive treatments
of the social psychological literature on effective influence).
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